Extending The Expressive Power Of Semantic Networks
نویسنده
چکیده
r , e p r e i e n t i r g " U r l r " i n a c o m p u t e r s y s t e m l o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e . They a i d b o t h : n t h e f o r a u l a t i c n and e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e da*a s t r u c t u r e s t h e y r e s e m b l e . E x a m p l e s o f such g r a p h i c a l a i d s a r e f o u n d i n t h e work o f O u i l l i a n ( 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ) , Palme ( 1 9 7 1 ) , Schank ( 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 ? ) , Simmons 6 B r u c e (1971) , A n d e r s o n £ Bower (1973) , H e n d r i x e t a l . ( 1 9 7 3 ) , R u m e l h a r t e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) , M y l o p c u l o s e t a l . ( 1 9 7 3 ) , and many o t h e r w r i t e r s . S e m a n t i c n e t s a r e a l s o used t o a d v a n t a g e i n t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n o f o t h e r f o r m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y s c e n e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e . g . , b y f c x i i s t t n ( 1970 ) , Gtwean (1971) , and r i r s c h e i n ε F i s c h l e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) . The i n f e r n a l and d i s p a r a t e ways i r w h i c h s e m a n t i c n e t s have been used p r e c l u d e t h e i r p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i c n i n a n o n r e s t i r t i v r way. H o w t v r , t h e y have g e n e r a l l y s h a r e d t h e i c l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : P a r t i c u l a r a s w e l l a s g e n e r a 1 c o n c e p t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s l a b e l e d o r u n l a b e l e d r o d e s o f a g r a p h . P r o p o s i t i o n s c o n s i s t o f s u b g r a phs w i t h l i n k s . t o a p r e d i c a t i v e c o n c e p t and t o a s u i t a b l e number o f c o n c e p t u a l a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e p r e d i c a t e . E x p l i c i t p r o p o s i t i o n n o d e s a i e s o m e t i m e s i n t r o d u c e d a s p o i n t s o f a t t a c h m e n t f o r t h e s e l i n k s , and a s u n i t s or: w h i c h p r e p o s i t i o n a l o p e r a t o r s ( e . g . , " k n o w s t h a t " ) can o p e r a t e . D u p l i c a t i o n o f n o d e s d e n o t i n g t h e same c o n c e p t i s a v o i d e d . Thus s e v e r a l a r c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t p r o p o s i t i o n s may r h a r e t h e s a t e c o n c e p t n o d e . Such n o d e s a r e u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d a s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a u n i g u e c o m p u t e r s t o rage l o c a t i o n , i . e . , t h e e n t r y p o i n t f o r a c c e s s i n g k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h a t c o n c e p t . S i m i l a r l y p r o p o s i t i o n n o d e s a r e r e g a r d e d a s u n i g u e . I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s e n c o d i n g s o f f a c t u a l k n c w l f d g e , s e m a n t i c n e t s seem o r e n a t u r a l and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h i s i s due t o t h e c n e t o o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e be tween n c d e s a n d t h e c o n c e p t s t h e y d e n o t e , t o t h e c l u s t e r i n g a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r node o f p r o p o s i t i o n s a t o u t a p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g , and t o t h e v i s u a l i m m e d i a c y o f " i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s " among c o n c e p t s , i . e . , t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s v i a s e q u e n c e s o f p r o p o s i t i o n a l l i n k s These p r o p e r t i e s o f s e m a n t i c n e t s a i d i n t h e d e s i g n o f c o m p a r i s o n a l g o r i t h m s , such c s t h a t o f O u i l l i a n ( 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ) f o r f i n d i n g i n t e r s e c t i c n n o d e s f o r two r e l a t e d c o n c e p t s , o r t h a t o f W i n s t o n (1970) f o r c o m p a r i n g t w o comp lex s c e n e d e s c r i p t i o n s . C e r t a i n k i n d s o f d e d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e a l s o a p p e e r t o b e f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e n e t w o r k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ( S a n d e w a l l , 1 9 7 0 ) . ( l a v i n g a c k n o w l e d g e d some a d v a n t a g e s o f s e m a n t i c n e t s o v e r t h e P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , I s h o u l d l i k e t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t I r e g a r d t h e t w o f c r m s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a s c l o s e l y a k i n 1 . I w i l l o f t e n s u p p l y p r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s e q u i v a l e n t s o f n e t w o r k p r o p o s i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r n e a r i s o m o r p h i s m . F u r t h e r m o r e , s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k s p r o p o s e d s o f a r h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s i v e l y weake r t h a n P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i r h a n d l i n g o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n and o f h i g h e r o r d e r s t a t e a e n t s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s 2 w i l l d e v e l o p a n e t w o r k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w h i c h p e r m i t s t h e use o f n a r y p r e d i c a t e s (n = 1 , 2 , 3 . . . ) , l o g i c a l c c n n i c t i v c s , u n i e s t r i c t i d q u a n t i f i c a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o v e r p r e d i c a t e s ) , lambda a b s t r a c t i o n , and n o r e x t e n s i o n a l o p e r a t o r s such a s b e l i e f a n d c o u n t e r f a c t u a l i m p l i c a t i o n . The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n e a s i l y a c c o m o d a t e s p r o p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t y p e e n c o d e d b y O u i l l i a n ( 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ) , w i r r t o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) , Schank ( 1 9 7 2 ) , and F u m e l h a r t e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) i n t h t i r n e t w o r k s . C o m p a r i s o n w i t h n e t w o r k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s used b y t h e s e and o t h e r a u t h o r s a r e made a s f a r a s space p e r m i t s . Sec . I I i n t r o d u c e s t h e f a s i c p r o p o s i t i o n a l n o t a t i o n , and S e c s . I I I V p r o g r e s s i v e l y e x t e n d t h e power o f t h e n o t a t i e n . I I . A t o m i c P r o r o s i t i o n s The b a s i c node t y p e i n t h e n o t a t i o n t o b e d e v e l o p e d i s t h e c o n c e p t n o d e . C o n c e p t n c d e s may d e n o t e i n d i v i d u a l s s u c h a s J o h n , C a n a d a , a p a r t i c u l a r c h a i r , o r a p a r t i c u l a r r e a l n u m b e r ; t h e y may d e n o t e s e t s such as a s e t o f o f c h i l d r e n , a s e t o f n u m b e r s , o r a s e t o f p r o p e r t i e s ; o r t h e y may d e n o t e p r e d i c a t i v e c o n c e p t s such a s ( t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t ) c h a i r , r e d , h o n e s t , v i r t u e , l a r g e r t h a n , i n f r o n t o f , b e t w e e n , o r a i v e s . Nodes may b e l a b e l e d w i t h names f o r t h e c o n c e p t s t h e y d e n o t e , e . g . , J c h n , c h a i r , c h a i r l , c h a i r 2 ; o r d i n a r y a t t r i b u t i v e t e r m s such a s " c h a i r " a r e r e s e r v e d f o r t h e c o r e s p o n d i n g u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t s , w h i l e n u m e r i c a l l y s u f f i x e d wo rds such a s " c h a i r l " a r e used t o r p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s o f t h e c o n c e p t s . The s m a l l e s t u n i t o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n a s e m a n t i c r e t i s t h e a t o m i c p r o p o s i t i o n . A n a t o m i c p r o p o s i t i o n c o n s i s t s c f a p r o p o s i t i o n n p d e , a PRED l i n k t o a p r e d i c a t i v e n o d e , and l i n k s t o a s u i t a r l e number o f c o n c e p t n o d e s s e r v i n g a s a r g u m e n t s o f t h * p r e d i c a t e . The a r g u m e n t l i n k s a r e marked i a some s y s t e m a t i c w a y , e . g . . A , B , C , e t c . , t o d i s t i n g u i s n t h e f i r s t , s e c o n d , t h i r d , e t c . , a r g u m e n t s . E x a m p l e s a r e shown i n F i g . 1 ( a ) * (c) , a l c r g w i t h t h e i r P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . A l l n o d e s i n F i g . 1 ( a ) ( c ) a r e r e g a r d e d a s t y p e nodes i n Q u i l l i a n ' s (1966) s e n s e and c o r r e s p o n d t o u n i q u e s t o r a g e l o c a t i o n s . N o t e t h a t t he l i n k s i n a p r o p o s i t i o n a r e d i r e c t e d f r o m t h e f i o p o s i t i o n node t o t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n . The o n l y s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s c o n v e n t i o n i s t h a t i t e n s u r e s n o n a m b i g u i t y o f t h e 1 F o r m a l l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e o f t e n w r o n g l y a l i g n e d f o r s u p p o s e d l y c o m m i t t i n g t h e d e s i g n e r t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s y n t a c t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d u n i f o r m i n f e r e n c e p r o c e d u r e s . T h i s c r i t i c i r n c o n f u s e s t h e l anguege o f l o g i c w i t h i t s c a l c u l u s . N o t h i n g w h a t e v e r p r e v e n t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o s h e u r i s t i c o r p l a u s i b l e i n f e r e n c e r o u t i n e s t o P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s a s s e r t i o n s . I n d e e d , F L A t i K E R l i k c s y s t e m s c o m b i n e h e u r i s t i c i n f e r e n c e p r o c e d u r e s w i t h a r e s t r i c t e d f o r a c f P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s i n t h e d a t a b a s e . 158 L. K, S c h u b e r t U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a K d o o n t o n , A l b e r t a A b s t r a c t " F a c t u a l k n o w l e d g e " used b y n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s can b e cos.vcn i t r . t l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r m o f s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k s . Compared t o a " l i n e a r " r e p r e s e n t a t i o n such a s t h a t o f t h e P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s h o w e v e r , s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k s p r e s o r t r r e c i a l p r o b l e m s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e use o f l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i v e s , q u a n t i f i e r s , d e s c r i p t i o n s , and c e r t a i n o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s . S y s t e m a t i c s o l u t i o n s t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s w i l l b e p r o p o s e d , i n t h e f o r m o f e x t e n s i o n s t o a more o r l e s s con v e n t i o r ia l n e t work r o t a t i o n . P r e d i c a t e C a l c u l u s t r a n s l a t i o n s o f n e t w o r k p r o p o s i t i o n s w i l l f r c g u e n t l y b e g i v c n f o r c o m p a r i s o n , t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c l o s e k i n s h i p o f t h e t w o f o r m s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
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